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,'?lJX 111/J ,(1970-N"?tuM) ::i ?Kitu' 'l'1 .Observa1ions on Some Cases of Unjust Enrichment
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163 162 pllnO'il •i• ',y '1111( n'Ttll!/Dn;r nll'm
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162
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1117!):l :,;,no :ilZ/'ll.': ;r Ni) ,,:in 'O:Jl:l :i,,no ;'llU'lll
(11::in ',w
11 o ,,::m ',tu ,nio::i n,,no :,will
101 73 -61
n,,m 'O:ll nn,,:,:,
ss n11•::i1V •r,10 n,,, 1•1
52 ;-J?Tl 'l'11
70 50 49
,111:,.i, ')'i:l
1111!17:l i-',1!1 :"!?Nl!ln'I l'l'llUi:l :,',NII/:, r ::i nin:;i:,
62
;'11U'lll 1l'Nl!I 0:ll? mi•!) :,lU'lll;-J O:ll 1•::i mn:,;,

193 '1'7:l •1!l•w', n11c;r n,:i, .JtJP J1'1!l
189 187 in:P17:l N?W ,,:in ?II) ,:i,n lli'I!)

[208]

44 43
60 • 54

n,,,,

m1110 ni:i1V:i1'.l n,,, npD;,
46 ,on " ' :,n mm ;,i
7 3 • 43 n,1i::i C'?ll:l,I n,:,1

149 143

138

mN'Yl'):J p!lO:J
:mno, o,,um::i

68 67

1lln'1 pill
11:::J'll
188 181 lZl!ll r,',y:,', pm, r,1(::1,:i:i ,:i,'n
163 162 ;r';,y:, •1,, T"lY? ;un:i:,, 11::i'::11 i'n'

186 185 184 t83 1s2 133 :i,,c:i 'l!l'll/
'l!l''IU? 1r1l:)T ,mNYl:i inN:i N'lll;'ll 1:Jl!lll!.! 0"11!.!
191 190 189 188 183
1nllio 1,';,v, ,,:in
,::i,n :1111!l

,w

139

:i,,::ip
1'0::110 1;-J11:Jj:>' N?lZI ;'lllllO:,
189 :in!:>lZII') Cl!:>
n'?l!.! ; 11:::J'Y ; 11:::J'll 1:11.17 ; ,,y:, 'l::l : l'1N1) ';,:,p

139

188

(',:,p:,

3 1 22

.,,:m

J"ly
182
59

135 134

mpn:, 10 ::ii•n ill
Jt:lp
,on N7 :in :,1:,1 :,y
22 :,;,no
m:110::i

109 108 104 103 ,::1n J"lP
'Jlln J"lp:, in;, ON ,nwo J"'lP
IO I 85 84 83
m1p '1l'lZI

135 134

180

111 – 79

43 '1:J.l7jl U!llVO? lr1j''T1 D'1i'J1U,:, pin
I 28 11::J'N? n,,, 71?.lllZl:J , )11j,''!li1 ni•::ii,
49 4 7 :,:,,,:i :in,,

1l!7Ji'J:l1 1!lU:J 'J111 )'1
P'l1"1ll/ 'J11i in!( 'J1li

41 46

n,,,

1Joo nu;,•';, ,nm';, oiu:, ';,v, 1m:>T
O':J"n ,,:i,,
46 ;r:iu :,m :,yi ,:,:iil :,yl') ;,yi

O"Ji'J1
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:iNl!l1
I 55 N!li? n•';,y:, K?lZl:J 1:JlZI? 1(!)11 n,:,y
182 ow•,1i, ?IV :,1(1!)1 n1l(lll;J:J 0'11l1l' :i1•n
187 185
18 2 :,';,in:, no:ic:, ,:ip, 1iw:,
,,n,,,w n,::ip':i :i,,on:i o•ooo 1<!l1, ,,,nw

120

134

Ol'nJ

11:Jn 7.17 O!lnl

189 187 0"1::llll J1'1!l
,n,,:i ,:11:::i :1111!l1 m::1,0 :1111!l
184
11:::in nwN ,:i,;:,

Jl1j,''!l
66 56 OllN:J nl'1nN
118 i•pco:,i'J 'l!l'lV? 1111:>T , ,i,,w;r n1Nllli1
161 140 '1!l'1U? ,o,u,:, n,:,t ,J11j,''!:m r,',y:,
66 45 Y,1j,''!l:J r1'l"lpjt n,:,y:,
66
jl:l'Vm:i n.11v,i, o•io,w:, ::ii•n

'1,,,
194 193 180 155

135·134 mpn11•i
188 • I 84 lV!ll n';,y:,
'l!l'lll', n,;iy:, ',y :'IKln:'I

140 139 135 134 132 'l!l'lll? 1nl:Jl
140 :,nit:i 1:llll? lnl:JT
184 144 138 135 134 132
,i:in nwN 11
189 187 1lt:l!l:i OllU
132 0;'1'1':J en•:,
?IV llli'Ji'J ''lli'Jl

IOI 97 91
'7 O'P
101 97 ,,n, nin:,
134

162 NPT';'I '1:J N?l KPT';'I '1:J
,,:in ,0:i10 ,,1, n•,::io::i :11,,c:i 1•,

65

nl'Ni, m,:11
128 ;-JY'lZl!l
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,n,,,

46

O'?Y:J:J :1?'NlV
4 7 46
:1:571:::JlZI
56 45 44 ,m•ini< 'li-''1'1 ,?1<1111
45 44 1n1'1nN 'lP':1 ,,::i,w
139 0'?l71!l 1:JlVl!.!:J 'l!l'lll7 lnl:JT ,Ol'n 101lll
n';,y:,', nll(Yl:1 7:57 'l!l'tu? ,m:iT ,Ol'n 1i'J11U
13 5 132 pip•!):,
132 pip•c:, ';,•y:,', in::i,n ,Dl'n
r,',y:,', r1Nlll;t ?.17 'l!l'lll? ,n,:n ,1:J'IU 1i'J11U

,o,w

56 51 49 48 47 46 44 43

133
Jl1j,''!ll'1
"11'lllV7 'lCO'IU 10llll

67 66
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80

47-46 Jl,P'!:>::l
47 nl!lr1lll/::l
,n,w
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80 mn•',w::i
(Jl1P'!l : ;11(1) 0'1i'Jlll/

[209]

lV!ll nli7'!l
185 182 '1!l'W? 7'll1'l'1 n1:Jl
185 182 n:mvi, :it ,,:, T'it;r ,:i
?l:Jlli!l
133 O'i'J:Jn mpn
106 :,iw!l
107 106 105

ri:i p!lo:i

:,y,,,r., :iicm,:i ,mn,,w:,o n•';,w m,,n

niomiv
o•omw:, ,nx ,,, ';,:i,, mt:i':i
10J1 p1',n', c•imm m:iT ,')mtv ,,, ?l.l :,:m
l03 102
102 C'!lmw:, inN ,,, ?ll o:io:,o :,ni:i;,
102 'lm'IZI nll7t:l
103
1MN? ')T111V '1' ?ll 01llt!I pn
47
.,n,w ';,w

n'l.l1l1p0
86 80 79 •o';, ,;no:, n:m,
69 65 64 61 57 53 48
N',',:m
O?l,'l11:J10:'T C?:l'j7 N?tv:J i:,o:, '01 T'1 ,i:,r.,:;i

69 64 63 61

10 I

54

71::iwn:i l'11l.lt:l ,,:m:i
83 82 81 ,:i,:i,,o ,n,,:i i:>oltv:i ,,:io:::i
91 90 n•';,w:, ,,,; :ix:::iw :,N'l/0
88 ;imo:i n•';,,v;, ni:>1 ,;,mo:i
79 mno:i •o ';,w ,m:i, ,n,';,,v';, ;nnr.,
79 mn•';,,v;,o p',n:, p•, CK ,n•';,w;, m't,Y!l
';,w mi!l:i ;,,,no nw,im ri ,o•',;ti!l ni•:nv',
so 49 ,,:in
79
n';,,vr.,';, ;,p,1:, ,::imv n•',w
99- 90

92 90

,,,s ni,,

47

:,:m

!02

I 06 30

80 79
t:l!ltvo:i K'ti itv1ll n"tvl'
•o', ,n•',w;, ',,v ;r:vt:l:io ;iNl/in:i n,,,

o•c:il:i mon,w
c:ii:, ';,:i ?ll n1J1i,:i Cli!llll ,•p';,n n1t:l'::l
25 24 n1N111:,::i 'lmlll ::i1•n
25
N';,';,:ir., momw
(Ki'C'll) m!lmw
101 100 99 •r.,':, n111;, ,m•ww n•';,w
()"lP : :,xi) :,np 'll'IV

m,,:,w

107 106 98 97 93

'IJ7 ,n•';,w:,

93 92

10 54 48

ni,,
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'7w :,:mo ;11~:m,:i

n•',v;', ,niw
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11:J"UI '1;)';, , n'';,11)', :"!ln'll,11 n!l01n
48 ,, mn•',v;
1m ,,, wn::il7tv
145 144 ,,:in pm, ',•i:o:i
80

97

101 -81

;'1ll1:J'IU

CJ). ,,,:i ON ,;'1N'l11J 11j71?n ?ll 'Nln

•r.,':, mt:l•:i;, •r.,1 ,,::i,w:, ,,, ?ll 1:::nu1r.,:, n1t:l':J
107-105 70 61

111;,10 K?w ,,:in ,11n:i ,,:i ,m,•::i'IV •01
37 30
'1N1:1 l:Jill:iO 111Jl 11ll'ill 7ll ;,o:,o:, ,m,,,w ,,,,
26 23

ss
,on K':> :in ;,i:,i :,; p, ,;,lwo n,:iw;,
n:in ?ill ,ni!l:i :,i,no :iw1l.l:i ri ,:,1wo 111::,um
59 55

6760-54

l(n!l01n
124 n,:,',:,:, 110::1 '1l'Vl
,,:in •c:i; ')pin
50 32 :,:ix'm o:,:i :,tvl71
70 ,,:in ':,,v ':>l.l 1?tvt.l oi,n
n•inco m,nn
34 33 ,on :,n :,i:,i :,1 !"ll.l? , p,cn:i
137 nimm:i 'ton
(!'1 n•:i : Cll ;'1N1) !'1 11':I 'Nln
146 145 144 143 132-122 w,:i, r,',im:i
()'1 n•:i 'Nln : Cl mi:i) c•o:in rmpr,
134 ;'1!)' )'1 n':J n,:, ;"11:l p ON
134 1p!ln !'1 11':J i po:,
170 134 – 121
Vl1:J1 11?'.!l:1:J
134 o•ion •';,r.,u •io:i n':>, ',1y;', N?tV
133 ',1:m,1:1
96 ,nm•',1zm n•',w';, 1CltV mn:i
133
:11:JI( :J'1Vl:l ,:iiv
123
r1:, MN :1lt!IIJ;"l :1Jj7!1
110 :,•100 :,3pn
13 1 123 12 2 11; p llw,:,, nupn
1s1 180 tVDl n':>x:,:i

n

,,,,

m1•::iill;, •o, ,mwr., ni:iw:,
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59 5 6 5 s n,1111::i K';,w
n,w,':> 1•1:,r., mw, r:i mn:i;, ,:,3wr., n,::,u,:,
s1 ,,:,wo :,r,
60 59

pit'l n•:i:, ',y::iw::i ,:ilwo n,:iw;,
5 7 ,:,,111:, ':,u, n'l"lp:i ,m,T
0•1r.,w:i O':iwni :,1:, JOT:i o•n:i onow :,vm
37 28
rn::,iv:,',
58

53

N',':,:ir.,

n1i'::lll/;'1 '01 , 71Tl OJl:I
m1'Jll/:1 '01 !'1 ,1'JUIO:i ?ill 1l'K1U O:Jl:I
72 54-52 43 29 27
54 mllt:l:I n,,,,w ,,,, ci':>illn
52 – 50

26

':,:,p:, n"7iV
',:i'j.'tv :1Kl:1 n:iit:l:i ,n, ::iT
mn•';,w
81 80 n1lllKl 'l'1
1 1s n',wr,;,r., •1o•w', m,:,T ,n•',w:, n1N;11;,
140
83 nno:,1 n,nn
,mn•'.,w:,o n•',w nl'1n

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86

r1

101-99 87 84

148 147

ii'!);i

p, rr:i ii'!),1

110• ',y

SI
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147 i',um nij'n

181

'mv
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(211]

m';,•o1vo1 niivn
!1ilV!ll n',~;i::i
nilj'n

:n::i~ n:nu;i

36 35 2s

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105 :::i ,:,o
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81
N ,nll
87 81
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10 67 63 47 :::i ,,., c•,,i
188 K ,n, T'llliip

N1i'7)

83
121
122
121
1s1 150 142

178

:I ,:::i::i 0'1::11

illlV7)

121
151

44 43
30

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81

:i.m
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123

N ,N!l
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N ,11
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180 120

K ,Ki'
N ,'Jj?

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K ,itip
:i ,,cp

N

,i?

56

:i ,,,,

48

K ,1Y

49

K ,W

132
46

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30

N ,T'i'

[213]

l ,'

l

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'Nl:)1

n

,::J Kl.lj:' N::l::l
126 :,:, ,'
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123 122 T:l ,'
n:l ,::J NY':10 K::l::J
83 48
K' ,1
136 ,, ,,

il1lN1 il:::>1:iit 'tL.'117)

:i ,:::lj?
K ,1'j?

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Nn!)o,n

N ,Tl.l

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1 ,'

t, ,:i JUl'lll:l N::1::1

N ,N:i

161 155
N ,TUj?
161 136 48 :, ,IUj?
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N ,N' KY'lll:l N::J::J
151 :i ,',
120 N ,N';,
132 :i ,x';,
70 55 46 44 ::J ,:,';,

56 55

It, ,t,' N1j:''i

184 1 ,:, ;'!N!l
81 , ,N' n,::i,n::i
121 :I,' Nl.lj:' N::l::l

188 N ,no
36 :::l ,t,' Nl:lj:> K::l:::J
195 20 18 K ,:,
52 20
106
36
132
182
123
180 178 125
59
50
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120

178

n .,

pi!l ,:i ;iu,i!l ,c•tviip ,Ni!lc
120 t, ., pi!l

178 l:l1 i1j?D!l ,NYM •:, ,'1!)0
82 T "0 ,N i11U1!l ,i1:i'K w,ir.,

't')?w,,, ,,7),n
88-8 7 82 48 n ,1 'Nl:)i
184 , ., n,:::i,n:,
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184 ::J ,l'
l 80 i1 ,i1 Kl:lj? N::1::1
102 l ,t,
87 84 83 19 :, ,t,

123
156

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20 N ,t,r., r:::iii'll
I 75
K ,n:, i1::l10

93 ',l!lp r.nn
152 l-::J ,101
131 129 ::i• ,,in

24

191 :J ,T
20 :J ,::J'
20 X ,tll
189 ::l ,p
20 x ,nop

49 N ,::J1'11/
50 :, ,lOlV
23 1 ,10111
183 136 N ,i:,n
21
N ,n0p N1l'l::J N::J::J ,:i"l'Y1 i'
181
N ,lll' 7'11:ilO
~"•i:, ',y ,,i,,o 1:i:m 1nn:,, ,,
138

51

123

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::J , 11 Nl':lj? X'.:l::J

C'l1Nl
m:mvn ,Kl':lj? N::J::J? C'l1Kln i:l:1N

147

102

94

85

193
tll':lj? ''0
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w,,u,

95

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184 tll'Jj? ''0
90 ::Jli ''0
189 tl?lV ''0
34 :,!)in ''0
147 ll'lV!' ''0
88 :inn ·•0
90 1nn ''0
184 ::i1pnn "O
90 l ''0 ,(:,m::,•;p 01!l1) l'"1UI, 711::J i"::J C"i;-Jl'J
160 I 59 158 156 l0 "0 ,11"1U/ ,:iK11!l C"i:il'J
4 7 l p,n , ? ::i•ru ,C'ilV'I:!
94 93 91 90

22

:,n

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88
54
87
I 84
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•:nil':l
,m::i,n:,

1li ''0 ,N' pio
nli ''0 ,M' j?l!)
tlli "0 ,M' j?i!l
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'1!ltl

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x:,p·:,p

·•o

87 84 l'l'l ''0
125 inn ''0
125 :Jll' ''tl
I 08 1'0 ''tl ,Mll"YI:! M::J::J
21
,:i ''tl ,xin::i x:::i::i
::i ,nY m::i,n:, ,:ii•n:::i:, n•:::i
128 123
K ,T:, Kl'lp M::J::J
128
146
129 128
129

,P"'inl':l

,(lK'1!l 01!l1) l'"1UI , 11i::J i"::J C"i:,1.)

188 167

,,::ir.ir.im n;mn

34

01':li "0 ,!'1"11V ,ll'1iT i1N M"i:,1.)
184 1?i ''0 ,!'1"1'117 ,Xln::i '"i:,l'J
193 nop ·•c ,11"1111 , ,,,1 •"1:,r.i

,

, ill'U/

''0

n111 ·•0

C'JilUN'i
126

l ,::i• :ii::JX1 o1?ll '?;'1
143
:, ,::J'

162

:,u,-,w
125

o mx ,Nl':lj? M::J::J ~,.,, ,c•i:,,w :,xi,
184 ,::i ,,, mw•x •I;,:, ,:ii111r., i•lr.i
152

,.,,mo

::i ,:,

189 I 8 I I 79 X ,lll'
193 182 180 N ,iY
I 07 65
M ,K' 11111:):J

121
M ,1'j?
137 X ,1tlj?
142 ::i ,,op
157 151 137 124 X ,n,p
175 ::J j?1!) ,NY'll'J M::J::J
(0'1111'0 'O : :,x,) cm,, ,,
126 125

19 ::J ,T'j?
X ,:, Xil'::J M::J:J

::J ,M!l
K ,1'j?
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,,op

157
M ,TOj?
128
N ,n? Xll'':l:l'l M::J::J
I 79
K ,lll' l'ii:ilO
130 i!)lV ••o· ,!'1"1'117 ,::JNl l'l'J'l:J
161 136 120 :1'117 ''0
87 1tJ ·•o ,x• j'i!l m::i,n:, ,•,ivx m:,1:,
21 , ••o .:::i pi!l ,xop x:i::i
,l'l1'l11'J'l'J n,;u:,
152 , mx ,::i• pi!l ,:,,:ix, :,',n •,:,
102 , mx ,:, pi!l , rtm11111 rm,111 •,:,
102 0,n ''0 ,i-,n:i x::i::i ,•:i,,o n,:,1:,
90 ::i ,ll ••o ,m::i,wn ,,111•n ·0
90 ::J ,il ''0
129 127 T ''O ,' i'"l!l ,Kl:!j? N::J::J ,:,r.,7ll}:,
tv1i'!) '01j?'? ,m::i,n:, ,C'l1Ml:i il1N , ?Nlln ,,
87 78 '1.)ll ,n"i
123
xipn ••o ,(m•,111:1) c•i•on •o

,::J j?i!l ,K7.lp X::J::l

[214)

184

lli , 1"1' i1tl

147

138

::i

,lp
n' ,l ''D ,,

138
pi!l ,c,,,l
71'::J ;;,:, :1""1 ,::J ,N? Nll'll7.l N::J::J ,N"::J1''1
48 47 ,,inn n"i ,::i ,;r',
62 56 ::I ,,.,

140

47

29 l' ''0 ,::J j'1!)
126 tlll ''0 ,l j.'1!l
:ir.,p-K7.lp ''0 ,' j'1!)

90 54

I 58 top ''0 ,' j'1!l
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TD ''0 ,n"itv ,:1"7.ll1
144 143 "Ill ''D
144 143 :ill ''0
m::iTn:, ,n,!)01n ,,,,,,

108

146 Nllj' ''0 ,' pi!)
n',i ''D ,K j:'1!) ,Kll'Yl:l K::J::J
186 t01U ''0 , T p1!l
29 Nll1U ''0 ,n j?1!)

184 1'l ''0 .n..,w ,N"::m•,
87 (::J ,Tl) IP j?1!) ,m::i,n:, ,'"'1
18 (N ,13) :I j:>1!) ,N7.lj,' N:l::J
99 (N ,1?) t, j?1!l

,1u,,,

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62 54 34 31 27

l("l) 1'

22

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125 (::J ,111)) ' j?1!l
166 (::J ,:,l) n j,'1!l ,Nll'll7.l N:l::J
184 i:, ,,, n11U'!! ,;;p,n;; i• ,C":ll:l1
35 20

100 N"ll i',
152 N"ll ::JI)

i, ,l m:iin ;r',u
131 ,, .,

120
152

152

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137 ::J"ll T'
53 K"ll nl
102 K ,,:, :"tl!'lll1 oi!li , 'l1n•111 .,,u•:,,:, 'D
87 :i ,m
o,D, •pr.m n,,v•',111

:, ,N'
l ,:I'

:iw,,,

152
143

123

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21
95

13 8

88

n ,l C'l:l1U

i'1 , N r!lmtv1 J'M1?1U

45

34
126

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120 r.l1 ,n"? ,n,wo;r 1!l0 ,c":io,
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English Summary
payment in the presence of three persons is extended to salvage as an alternative to
stipulation with the owner himself. Conversely, the importance of the owner's
presence in salvage is extended to lost property.
The salvage rules illustrate the process whereby a deficiency in the law is remedied
by takkanah to obviate the possibility of one person enjoying a benefit at the
expense of another. This regulation is in contrast to the law regarding improvements
made to another's property without asking the owner.

Part Five

Indemnity for rescue of a person
The rescue of persons is in Jewish law not merely a matter of moral sensibility. Very
often the act will entail expenditure by the rescuer or damage to a third person's
property. Rescue and salvage are similar in several respects. Both rest on religious
precept and accordingly involve a voluntary act without any legal obligation
between the parties to do the act or any agreement as to indemnifying the salvor or
rescuer.
In contrast to salvage, however, an individual may not abandon his life or person.
Again, salvage and rescue may be distinguished with regard to the obligation to
incur expenses: whereas in salvage it is possible to set-off value against value, in
rescue that is not.
A guiding consideration is the encouragment of acts of rescue. The Talmud
prescribes under takkanah that the rescuer is not bound to compensate any third
person who has suffered a loss in the course of the rescue.
As regards indemnity for the rescuer's expenses, the Talmud is not explicit but the
early post-talmudic authorities derived the rule in various ways. In order to
encourage rescue, it was prescribed that the costs entailed must be paid immediately
and without reservation. Opposition by the person rescued to payment was ignored.
Similarly, where in the course of rescuing one person another is also rescued, the
latter will not be heard to say that even had he himself not been rescued the rescuer
would have incurred expenses, since every person could argue so and this might
endanger people.

(xxi]

English Summary

or because the property was salvaged without his effort? Again, does a person who
whilst salvaging his own property salvages also his neighbour's, have any right to be
paid in full or proportionately? Still another question is whether the salvor's right
must be distinguished as between payment for his efforts and reimbursement of his
outgoings and losses.
The Mishnaic rule that where a salvor makes no stipulation as to payment, he is
only to be paid for the services he has rendered, is subject to significant reservations
which make the rule exceptional, whereas the salvor's right is much wider.
The Talmud understands the Mishnah to be concerned not with the case where the
property would be lost but for the salvor's action. If it is impossible to save the
property, the salvor is entitled to all of it under the rule of hefker (renunciation of
property) or at least to the value of what he lost in the course of the salvage.
The early post-talmudic authorities introduced a further reservation – the Mishnaic
rule does not apply where the owner is not present; in that event the saJvor is
entitled not only to payment for his services, but also to the value of his loss. His
right is further extended to entitle him to full indemnity of his outgoings when,
without his intervention, the owner would have used the salvor's property to effect
his salvage.
The Mishnaic distinction between payment for services rendered and payment for
losses incurred by the salvor requires clarification. The exemption as regards the
latter when the owner is present and the salvor has made no stipulation is explained
on the ground that the owner can argue that he could have salvaged his property
without such expense. Thus, whenever this argument cannot be raised, the salvor is
entitled to be paid for his losses, i.e. payment for services includes all the necessary
outgoings, whereas the value of the property lost in the course of the salvage is
confined to those outgoings which the owner might not have been ready to expend,
for which reason stipulation must be made.
Accordingly the Mishnaic rule restrictive of the salvor's rights will apply where
salvage was possible and effected in the owner's presence without his being
consulted and the salvor acted freely of his own choice; he will then be entjtled to
payment for his services, i.e. his necessary outgoings as to which no stipulation need
be made.
The owner may be exempt from payment if he voices opposition to the salvage. But
where he knows that in any event the salvage will be carried out (because, for
instance, it is involved in saving others) or his opposition is merely aimed at
avoiding due payment for the outgoings, it will not be taken at its face value and
have no effect.
The legal basis for salvage indemnity, as it emerges from a survey of the sources,
lies on one view in takkanah since in strict law, arguably, the salvor only acted to
save the owner trouble and is not entitled to payment; and in order to encourage
such acts a duty to pay was instituted by takkanah. The "Rule of Court" (tenai bet
din) which entitles a salvor to payment for his losses, may, it is suggested, be the
source of the takkanah as against the Mishnaic rule of law.
The connection between the rules relating to salvage and returning lost property has
been one of reciprocal effect. The possibility in the case of lost property to stipulate

[xx]

English Summary

Shulhan Arukh, the glossators give it prominence as a point to be considered in the
apropriate circumstances, in particular where the third party gives additional
consideration or where an agent has varied his agency. Reflection has led to a
number of distinctions depending on the connection between the benefit and the
agency activity. The possibility of applying the rule to a benefit occasioned by
mistake has also been examined.
Some of the later rabbis held that the principal's right does not arise in strict law but
under rabbinical takkanah.
The solution of sharing the benefit is not proposed under the exemptive principle when the rcipient would take all – nor under the rule relating to doing business with
another's property – when the owner would get all. The agent not only enjoys a
benefit from his agency but makes a profit. Accordingly, his obligation is greater
than that of a person who only enjoys a benefit. On the other hand, he does not
make his profit at the expense of the principal and therefore all of it cannot be said
to be due to the latter. The agent and principal have equally strong rights; both
have contributed to creating the profit, the one by his activity and the other by his
property.
The broadening of the rule could have far-reaching consequences, but apart from
the situation where the third party gives additional consideration or where the agent
varies his agency, no broadening of the rule has been undertaken.
The Jaw relating to the agent who obtains a benefit from his agency is examined
from the viewpoint both of agency law and of unjust enrichment. In certain
circumstances, an agent so benefiting may be in breach of trust or even criminally
liable and be depreived of the advantage.

Part Four

Indemnity for salvage of property
Is the voluntary nature of salvage significant to the salvor's right to indemnity? On
the one hand, in doing what he did the salvor has acted piously in observance of a
mitzvah, unlike one who simply intervenes with regard to another's property and
unasked enhances its value. Perhaps for this reason his rights are superior. Salvage
should moreover be encouraged, and if the rules of law do not allow for proper
compensation, they call for amendment. On the other hand, the doing of a pious act
is its own reward and further monetary payment is superfluous. What connection is
there between the pious act of the salvor and his monetary rights? His rights may be
lesser than that of one who unasked improves another's property, since the latter
presumably acted as he did in anticipation of being rewarded, whilst he did not or
waived any right.
Regard must also be.had to whether or not the owner was present when the salvage
occurred and whether the salvor made any stipulation with him. What, further, is
the position where the salvor is unsuccessful either because his efforts end in failure

(xix)

English Summary

recently the possibility has been considered of applying it to the case where a tenant
has effected insurance at his own cost and the question of the destination of the
insurance money arises. The similarity between insurance and the lending of the ox
is twofold. First, just as in the latter case the profit arises from the act of the hirer
lending the ox, so with insurance the profit arises from the act of the tenant.
Secondly, in both instances the profit derives from the monetary loss of the person
involved – the hirer in having to pay the hire money to the owner without receiving
anything from the borrower, and the tenant in having paid the insurance premiums.
The parallel has nevertheless been held not to apply. The distinctive features of the
ox-hiring case are not present in the insurance case. In the former, the owner's right
to the hire money arises out of the hirer's obligation or the sub-hirer's use or
possession of the ox; in the insurance case the person paying the premiums enters
into a personal transaction with the insurance company quite distinct from the hiring
of the thing hired and therefore does not transact any business directly with the
owner's property. The owner therefore has no call on the insurance money.
Alternatively, whilst in the ox-hiring case it may be unjust to transact business with
another's property, in insurance it is unjust for one to pay the premiums and for
another to reap the benefit.
In applying the ox-case rule to modern problems, a number of distinctions are
made, some substantive, emphasising the unjust enrichment aspects, and some
formal. Where the owner claims all the profit made from his property, it is essential
to establish whether indeed the property is the source of the profit. Analysis of the
rule has taken it out of the conceptual realm of abstract justice and prevented its
over-extension involving injustice to others.

Part Three

Agent who receives benefit in consequence of his agency
Here the question is – how should the benefit arising from the act of a person
representing another be treated? Is the fact that the benefit arose out of agency
activity determinative of the rights of the parties? Although possibly in agency law,
the agent's act may not give any right to the principal, the latter is nevertheless
entitled to receive or participate in the benefit because it is he who has been the
"cause" of it. Alternatively, whilst the principal has a right to the benefit, the agent
also has a right since but for his action the principal would have nothing, the benefit
not being an integral part of the agency activity. If the right of the one in the benefit
the other has received is recognised, there falls to be determined when he is deemed
to be the "cause" to entitle him to the benefit. Juridically the problem falls within
the bounds of unjust enrichment.
The rule that has emerged is that, irrespective of agency law, where a person has
been the "cause" of a benefit he is entitled to enjoy it. First elaborated in the
Palestinian Talmud, the rule was adopted by some of the earlier post-talmudic
authorities. Its history is interesting. Whilst it did not receive explicit mention in the
(xviii)

English Summary
recipient will have to pay because of the general rule that a person who improves
the property of another is entitled to have his expenses reimbursed.
13. Conclusions
The question of whether the principle "the one gains and the other does not lose" is
exemptive or not is treated in the Gemara as being without Mishnaic precedent. In
holding that the principle is exemptive, the authorities do not lay down a general
rule but one confined to the specific fact situation discussed – unauthorised
occupation of premises.
The legal foundations for the exemptive principle vary: that the donor has no cause
of action at all; or that, although he may have a cause of action, he will be
restrained from acting in the manner of Sodom.
In applying the principle the "no loss" circumstances must be carefully defined.
Loss of an anticipated profit is sufficient to remove the exemption but not where the
property is not normally a source of profit to the owner. The same holds where the
profit is not practically possible. The kind of property from which a profit may be
derived is extended by the presumption that today houses are generally for letting,
without the burden of proof resting on the owner. Again the loss need not to be
co-extensive with the benefit.
Two further rules of importance are established. If the donor protests the recipient's
benefit, it must be paid for. If the recipient indicates any intention to pay for the
benefit should he not be allowed to enjoy it freely, an obligation to pay will arise.
Thus the exemptive principle is limited and all cases in which the recipient should
rightly pay for his advantage are excluded.

Part Two

Transacting business with another's property
In addition to the exemptive principle of "the one derives benefit and the other
sustains no loss", there are other aspects of Jewish law on unjust enrichment.
There are various situations where, whilst the owner of the property may suffer no
loss from another's use of it, he is nevertheless entitled to recompense. The source
of the rule lies in the case, cited in a Mishnah, of the man who hires an ox from his
neighbour and then lends it to another and the ox dies. Here the rule is that the
hirer is liable for the ox.
The legal basis for this rule is sometimes explained by reference to the injustice of
the situation and sometimes to the quasi-agency of the person obtaining the benefit.
The earlier post-talmudic authorities extend the rule by analogy to the case of a
person who hires out another's property, the hire price belonging to the owner, and
also to the case of unauthorised subletting of land, although some authorities seek
to limit the latter to where the owner actually suffers loss from the subletting.
Later authorities do not appear to extend the rule substantially further but more

[xvii]

English Summary
pay for the benefit he had obtained from using the type on the grounds that had he
not acted as he did, the writer may have sold more copies of his own book without
the competition presented by the printer's publication. A somewhat similar case is
that of the "bottled water" labels, already mentioned.
11. Recipient providing a benefit

Towards the end of the talmudic discussion the argument takes a new line. A
further reason for exemption is that unoccupied premises are apt to fall into decay
and a person who goes into occupation even without agreement will prevent that
and may even put the premises into good condition.
This argument bases the exemptive principle on the benefit which the owner may
derive. It constitutes a revolutionary turn because, if it applied, the application of
the principle would be severely limited. Some authorities do indeed draw this
conclusion but neither Maimonides nor Karo mention this aspect of the matter and
thus inferentially do not accept the limitation.
12. Causation of benefit: beneficiary, donor and third party

The benefit derived may be the result of an act by the recipient or the donor or a
third element. The exemptive principle applies even when the recipient's own act
creates the benefit, whilst the charging principle – "the one benefits and the other
loses" – may operate when the benefit is due to the donor; in the fencing case the
attempt is to exclude the exemptive principle on the grounds that he is deemed to
suffer a loss. On the other hand the classic example of the exemptive principle is the
occupation of premises without agreement where the recipient benefits from his own
act.
The above rules, however, are not confined to the acts of the two parties
immediately concerned but extend to benefits due to an extraneous element, as in
the forced feeding case, except that on one view the recipient will only be
chargeable if his person and not merely his property is affected. Thus the question is
raised of wool belonging to one person and the dyes to another being dyed by a
third person. Is the improvement of the wool treated separately from the wool
itself, in which case the person owning the dyes may ask the person owning the wool
to return the dyes? Or is the improvement not separate and the owner of the wool
may say that he has nothing belonging to the owner of the dyes? How is it possible
to press the second of these alternatives and exempt the owner of the wool from
payment? In the feeding case, however, although the benefit was not occasioned by
the recipient, he engaged in it in his person. Alternatively the dyeing of the wool
may not be a benefit since it is only decorative. The answer is that the wool is not
improved by the act of the recipient or his "agent" but by a third party. Accordingly
a distinction is made as to whether the benefit accrues or does not accrue to the
person of the recipient.
This distinction is challenged by the authorities. One would reject it, because it is
not mentioned in the Talmud, and confine the exemption to cases where a third
party intervenes, but where the benefit comes about from the donor alone the

[xvi)

English Summary

9. Benefit involving lesser Joss
(a) Will the recipient of the benefit have to pay the value of the benefit or the value
of the loss, where the loss is less than the benefit?
A Mishnah deals with a house of which the upper part is owned by A and the lower
part by B. The house collapses and A asks B to rebuild his part so as to enable him
to rebuild the upper storey. B refuses. The Mishnah decides that A is entitled to
rebuild the lower part and occupy it until B reimburses him for the outlay. It is,
however, observed that "one who occupied another's property without his
agreement must pay rent," inferring that A will have to pay B rent although B has
suffered no loss in the circumstances (because of his refusal to rebuild his part). This
view does not contradict the exemptive principle because this case is
distinguishable; the alteration of the rebuilt part entails a loss and renders A liable
to pay rent.
On this basis most of the earlier authorities decide that the value of the benefit and
not merely that of the loss must be paid. That is the ruling in the Shulhan Arukh.
(b) An 18th century authority explains this holding on the ground that the
exemptive principle rests on the rule that a person may be compelled not to act in
the manner of Sodom and the rule is not applicable where there is a loss, even a
minor one. Another explanation is based on the view that where there is a loss a
person will always be diligent in protesting against the use which another makes of
his property, however small the loss he sustains. Even when he does not know of
the use, he is presumed to have protested, and this presumption brings the case into
the rule discussed above.

10. Benefit involving Joss to other property
Does the recipient of a benefit pay only where the loss is in respect of the property
he has used or does his obligation extend to other property which is affected?
A 19th century scholar had the following case put to him. A stole a book containing
instructions how to paint and copied its contents. Apart from the question of
copyright, the exemptive principle is involved. If the book was new and was
damaged in the course of the "theft", then the rule regarding lesser loss as above
will apply. If the book is not damaged but the owner sustained loss by A now being
able to compete with him in painting, it is problematic whether A must pay. A
comparison is made with the case where one uses a shop of another without
agreement, the shop not being for letting, and the owner does business from
another shop, which may be affected. Is the damage too remote for liability to arise
or is the owner's concern over the loss caused to him sufficient ground for charging
the "guilty" party?
The tendency is to make the recipient liable, irrespective of the place of the loss.
Some of the authorities also take for granted the view that the loss need not arise in
connection with the same property, but without going into the matter. In one 18th
century case, a writer sent to printers a commentary of his on two Orders of the
Talmud. He complained that the printer had used the type set for his work to print
a text with the commentaries of Rashi and the Tosafot. The printer was adjudged to

[xv]

English Summary

Nor is the fact that the property was let in the past but is no longer; the situation is
treated as at the time when the recipient derives his benefit.
The concept of "loss" is also limited by prescribing that prevention of anticipated
profit will only occur when the owner might actually obtain it but not where he or
his agent are absent and cannot in fact make the profit. The same applies where the
owner is available and wishes to let the property but there are no people wishing to
rent.
The category of lettable property is, however, significantly broadened by the
presumption that a person who does not personally need some property will
normally let it out, and by the more generalised presumption that today houses are
deemed to be for letting, whether or not they are in fact let at the material time.
8. Loss preceding enjoyment of the benefit

(a) A benefit may become possible initially by a preceding Joss which has ceased
when the benefit is enjoyed. Is the initial loss a relevant element? There is the case
of a person who stuffed food down the throat of another; although no loss has been
sustained (since if the food is "returned" it would be unpalatable and valueless)
payment must be made. This is explained on the ground that the other has benefited
by reason of the first person's original loss, which brings into operation the principle
of "the one benefits and other loses." Another explanation is that since the food
retains some value, payment must be made because of the partial loss sustained.
Another view is that the two acts are treated as occurring simultaneously.
(b) It would seem that a preceding loss will create an obligation to pay for any
subsequent benefit. That, however, is inconsistent with the decision of a later
medieval authority in the following case. A feudal lord after expropriating the house
of A, a Jew who had fled from the lord's domain, allowed B, another Jew, to
occupy it. A claimed rent from B. The exemptive principle was held since the house
must be treated as being not for letting since, if B were to vacate it, it might be
given over to a non-Jew and no rent could then be obtained. According to one
authority, B would have to pay rent since his benefit was preceded by A's loss (the
expropriation). A suggestion to remove this inconsistency has been made by
distinguishing the "forced feeding" case, where the two acts presumptively occurred
together (as suggested above) from the "expropriation" case, where that was not
so; A's loss occurred irrespective of B's benefit, for which reason B would not have
to make payment.
(c) The Shulhan Arukh deals with a case where A has deposited a pledge with a
non-Jewish money-lender and B who is in need of funds gets A to allow him to
borrow on the security of the pledge. If the pledge is destroyed, B will not, it is
held, have to pay A its value. Prima facie B's benefit (release from his debt to the
money-lender) arises because of A's loss (destruction of the pledge) and he ought to
pay according to the above rule. B's benefit, however, occurred after A's property
no longer existed and therefore B is exempt for payment.

(xiv]

English Summary

immaterial in the circumstances, since no loss has been occasioned to the other.
Luria reasons that payment for the fencing arises because the burden on the first
person is increased by the extension of the fencing and therefore only in such
circumstances will the disclosure of an intention to pay have effect.
A still later authority is critical and holds that the reason for the obligation to pay in
the fencing case is the financial gain of having a fully fenced property, whereas the
exemptive principle is concerned with some indeterminate benefit.
(b) Various explanations have been advanced for the obligation to pay where an
intention to do so is present. A 19th century responsum deals with the case of a
person who bottled scent water and affixed a label which another person was using
under government licence. After arguing that the defendant was to be charged
because he had shown that the plaintiffs expenditure in obtaining the licence suited
his own interests, the conclusion is reached that as long as "there are outgoings and
acts beneficial to both parties, they are partners and can compel each other to
contribute" – but only where the outgoings and acts were essential and for the
common good. In any other situation, either may refuse to contribute to a benefit
which he does not want. Hence where a recipient shows an intention to pay
outgoings, he cannot plead that they were against his wishes.
When a claim is made in respect of a unilateral benefit, no obligation to pay will
arise ab initio, but if an intention to pay is disclosed, that is equivalent to a legal
undertaking to do so.
Another modern authority explains the obligation to pay in the fencing case in two
different ways. First, if the recipient has shown his readiness to share the outgoings,
the other suffers a loss if payment is not enforceable. The other explanation is that
the indication makes the recipient not merely a recipient of a benefit but enriches
him. These two explanations are meant to demonstrate that the exemptive principle
is not involved. Whilst the first stresses the Joss of the one party, the second is based
on the distinction between a mere recipient of a benefit and one who is financially
enriched.
(c) The Shulhan Arukh rules that "where premises not for letting are involved, no
rent need be paid provided the occupant has not disclosed that he would pay rent,
were he not allowed to take up full occupation. Where he does disclose such an
intention, he must pay." Manifestation of intention will only have this effect if it is
made to the true owner.

7. Prevention of foreseeable profit
Must the Joss of the other party be actual or is it enough if he is prevented from
obtaining a profit which he anticipated? For the Gemara the answer is simple:
"loss" includes the prevention of an anticipated profit. When the problem was
posed whether one who occupied premises unbeknown to the owner must pay rent,
the Gemara rules that it depends on whether the premises were for letting and the
occupier generally rents them. If so, the occupier derives a benefit and the owner
sustains a loss and payment must be made.
The criterion of anticipated profit was not, however, determined objectively. The
fact that people generally let property of the kind in question is not determinative.
[ xiii l

English Summary

were. But what they really say is that the rule applies because of the exemptive
principle and not vice versa. It may also well be that the exemptive principle
operates not because of the rule, but because a party who suffers no loss has no
cause of action at all against the person who benefits, and it is unnecessary to call
the rule in aid. Where, however, it is desired to prevent ab initio an offending act,
the rule may have to be invoked.
The exemptive principle can also be explained in other ways without recourse to the
rule. Where there is no loss, there is nothing to which an obligation to pay can
attach. Or although in strict law a duty to pay may exist, a waiver is deemed to be
imported because no loss has been suffered.

5. Protesting the benefit obtained
One important limitation on the exemptive principle occurs where a person declares
that no one should benefit from his property.
In the Gemara the duty to make payment for any benefit obtained from Temple
property is derived from the principle that because of the special nature of the
property any benefit derived therefrom without knowledge is treated in the same
manner as private property used with the owner's knowledge. The Tosafot ad Joe.
explain that the Divine wish is that no one should benefit in the course of
committing sacrilege. For that reason, the recipient must pay. There are
commentators, however, who explain the ruling by arguing that the use of Temple
property effected without protest from the competent authority is like the use of
private property with protest. Where the owner makes protest, the recipient of the
benefit must pay although no loss has been suffered. Others again understand the
phrase "use of property with knowledge" as meaning an implied agreement to pay.
Accordingly if no such agreement can be implied (even if protest is made) payment
will not be required.
The rule in the Codes is that if the owner tells the occupier to leave and the latter
refuses, he must pay rent. This rule has been extended even to property not for
letting and to an occupier who would otherwise not rent property.
6. Intention to pay for the benefit

(a) Another limitation on the exemptive principle arises when the recipient discloses
an intention to pay for the benefit he obtains.
Where a person whose property encircles that of a neighbour puts up fences which
run along three sides of a neighbour's property and then the latter erects a fence on
the fourth side, the neighbour must pay for his share in the entire fencing. The
Gemara tries to infer the exemptive principle from this case on the ground that had
the first person erected the fourth fence, the neighbour would inferentially have
been exempt from payment. The Tosafot query the inference since the erection of
the fourth fence by the first person does not affect the exemptive principle. In
erecting that fence the neighbour has indicated that he is satisfied with and concurs
in the expenditure for the fencing. This view was challenged in the 16th century by
R. Shlomo Luria on the ground that disclosure of one's readiness to pay is
[ ,cii)

English Summary
answer to it in statute law or case•law or by analogy, it shall decide it in the
light of the principles of freedom, justice, equity and peace of the Jewish
heritage.

2. The talmudic discussion
In Baba Metzia 117b, the discussion begins with R. Yohanan attributing to the
Tanna R. Yehudah the view that in three instances a person is prohibited from
deriving any benefit from another's property and must pay for such benefit.
According to the Tosafot ad Joe. the basis for this rule is a rabbinical regulation
(takkanah). The requirement to pay, it appears, does not follow from any rule of
law but from a desire generally to discourage the use of another's property without
consent. The Gemara, however, rules that each of the three instances mentioned
may rest on different grounds.
In the basic talmudic discussion in Baba Kamma 20a-21a, the question is whether
rent must be paid for occupying another person's premises without agreement. The
Gemara analyses the different possibilities and concludes that the question will only
arise with regard to premises not intended for letting and where the occupier usually
does not rent property. When these two conditions are not present, the occupier
will derive no benefit and the owner will lose nothing. Hence no payment is
exigible. In the reverse case, however, payment must be made. In the result the
question is left open. Thereafter the Gemara proceeds to cite various traditions
from which it emerges that most Amoraim held that a person occupying premises
without agreement is to be treated in accordance with the principle (hereinafter
"the exemptive principle") that where "the one derives a benefit and the other
sustains no loss", no payment need be made.
Neither Maimonides nor Karo expressly lays down a generalised rule based on the
exemptive principle, but they confine themselves to the particular factual situation
discussed in the Gemara.

3. The "manner of Sodom"
The exemptive principle and the rule that "one may be compelled not to act in the
manner of Sodom" (i.e. not to adopt a dog·in·the•manger attitude) are often
treated in association. The rule is mentioned in a number of places in the Talmud
where the question of acting or not acting in relation to another's property occurs
before anything is actually done, whereas the exemptive principle is applied where
an act has already been effected. The difference is apparent in the fact that the
talmudic references to the one never mention the other.
The earlier post•talmudic authorities, however, stress that the circumstances in
which the rule will apply are those which give rise to the exemptive principle.

4. The legal basis of the exemptive principle
The exemptive principle operates inferentially by reason of the rule. Some early
authorities seem to speak of the rule and the exemptive principle in one breath, as it
[ xi l

English Summary
but there is a certain artificiality about this and in recent years the tendency has
grown to regard is as an independent class of obligation. In Israeli law until 1979 the
subject was not regulated by any particular statute. Several enactments – for
instance the Guarantee Law, 1967 (sec. 9), the Land Law, 1969 (sec. 21), and the
Agency Law, 1975 (sec. 10) – made provision for their respective purposes.
As long as no statutory provisions existed in the matter, Israeli case law in the main
drew upon English law in reliance on article 46 of the Palestine Order in Council.
English law, however, contains no precise criteria for determining whether a person
has become unlawfully enriched at the expense of another so as to give rise to a
right of action. Lord Mansfield, the progenitor of quasi-contract in English law, said
that the basis for the right of action lay in the obligation to repay by virtue of the
principles of equity and natural law.
The Knesset has now, in its Unjust Enrichment Law, 1979, abandoned the
principles of English law and adopted those of Jewish law, as they emerge from the
studies in this volume, which were carried out in preparation for the new Law.
The principles of Part One now embodied in the Israeli Law are on the one hand
recognition of the obligation of a person who enjoys a benefit from another to make
restitution of the benefit, thus ignoring the artificial theory of "the volunteer". On
the other hand, the Law recognizes the special position of one who derives a benefit
without any loss to another.
These principles are expressed in the following sections of the Law:
1. (a) Where a person obtains any property, service or other benefit from
another person without legal cause (the two persons hereinafter respectively
referred to as "the beneficiary" and "the benefactor"), the beneficiary shall
make restitution to the benefactor, and if restitution in kind is impossible or
unreasonable, shall pay him the value of the benefit.
(b) It shall be immaterial whether the benefit was obtained through an act of
the beneficiary, an act of the benefactor or in any other way.

2. The court may exempt the beneficiary from the whole or part of the duty
of restitution under section 1 if it considers that the receipt of the benefit did
not involve a loss to the benefactor or that other circumstances render
restitution unjust.
The introduction to the Bill of this Law states that "the Law adopts the approach of
Jewish Law in a number of respects: it entitles a person to the value of the
improvements he may make in another's property; it adopts the principle of "one
derives a benefit and the other sustains no loss" as ground for exempting a person
from making restitution; it entitles a salvor to indemnity for the expenses he has
incurred, so as to encourage salvage.
Henceforward the provisions of the Law must be construed in the light of Jewish
Law, because that law is its source and lacunae therein should be supplied by
reference to Jewish Law in view of the Foundations of Law Enactment of 1980 that
provides:
1. Where the court, faced with a legal question requiring decision, finds no

[x]

English Summary
Part One

"One derives a benefit and the other sustains no loss"
1. Introduction
In Jewish law "unjust enrichment" embraces all those situations in which one
person derives a material benefit from another without being legally entitled
thereto. The central question is whether and to what extent the "donor" may
require something in return from the recipient of the benefit. Since no agreement
exists on the matter, no action can lie in contract. Nor will an action in tort be
available when the donor has not been injured by the recipient's enjoyment of the
benefit.
The nature of the benefit and the manner in which it is obtained will affect the
question. The benefit may not entail a loss to the donor. A person who parks his car
in a lot belonging to a neighbour may or may not have to pay a charge, depending
first on whether he generally pays for parking his car – if he does not, he has derived
no material benefit – and secondly on whether the lot is intended for parking at a
charge – if not, he may plead that the other has not sustained any loss.
Again, a benefit may be occasioned by an act of the donor not the recipient. He
may make improvements to property with or without any thought of reward.
In some circumstances an act may be of significant social and moral importance in
saving the life of a person or salvaging his property, which should be encouraged.
From the viewpoint also of the recipient questions will arise about the amount he
must pay. Is the criterion to be the value of the benefit obtained or the money
actually spent?
Four main groups of cases are distinguished in Jewish law: (1) where one party
derives no benefit and the other sustains no loss; (2) where the recipient derives a
benefit and the other sustains a loss; (3) where the recipient derives a benefit and
the donor sustains no loss; (4) where the recipient derives no benefit and the donor
sustains a loss.
The Gemara – where the main talmudic discussion occurs in Baba Kamma 20a states that the law is very simple. In the first case no payment needs to be made. In
the second payment is required. The third group is extensively discussed whilst the
last group is not dealt with expressly in the Gemara but is debated by the early
post-talmudic authorities.
The usual Common Law classification of obligations into contract and torts has led
to "unjust enrichment" being treated under the rubric of quasi- or implied contract,

I ixJ

Chapter 4 Immunity of rescuer in torts
Chapter 5 Rescuer's right to indemnity from the
rescued person
Chapter 6 Rescuer's right to indemnity from one with
duty to rescue
Chapter? Opposition of rescued person
Chapter 8 Rescuing oneself and another
Chapter 9 Incurring expenses but without effecting
rescue
Chapter 10 Accelerated proceedings for recovery of
expenses
Chapter 11 Conclusions

180
181
184
188
190
191
193
194

INDEXES
Subject Matter Index
Sources Index

203
213

[ vii l

PART THREE

AGENT WHO RECEIVES BENEFIT
IN CONSEQUENCE OF AGENCY
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 2 Agent receiving a benefit
Chapter 3 Participation in risk as a ground for sharing
in profits
Chapter 4 Insuring another's property
Chapter 5 Appendix: Rights in transaction by way of
finding lost property
Chapter 6 Conclusions

79
81
102
105
108
110

PART FOUR

INDEMNITY FOR SALVAGE
OF PROPERTY
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
Chapter 13
Chapter 14

Introduction
The duty to salvage property
The law and implied condition
Encouragement of salvage operations as the
reason for compensating the salvagor
Salvage as a voluntary act for which no
payment is to be made
Definition of the reward of the salvagor
Property which the owner could not salvage
Salvage from certain damage
Stipulation regarding indemnity
Unsuccessful attempt at salvage
Salvage without the aid of the salvagor
Salvaging one's own and another's property
Owner opposing salvage
Conclusions

117
120
121

132
135
141
142
149
150
155
156
159
165
169

PART FIVE

INDEMNITY FOR RESCUE
OF A PERSON
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 2 The duty to rescue
Chapter 3 The duty to incur expenses in rescue
[vi}

175
178
179

CONTENTS
Preface

11
PART ONE

"ONE DERIVES A BENEFIT AND THE
OTHER SUSTAINS A NO LOSS"
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Chapter 12

Introduction
The talmudic discussion
The "Manner of Sodom"
The legal basis for the exemptive principle
Protesting the benefit obtained
Intention to pay for the benefit
Prevention of foreseeable profit
Loss preceding enjoyment of the benefit
Benefit involving lesser loss
Benefit involving loss to other property
Recipient providing a benefit
Causation of benefit: beneficiary, donor and
third party
Chapter 13 Conclusions

17
19
20
21
22
24
27
28
30
32
34
35
37

PART TWO

TRANSACTING BUSINESS
WITH ANOTHER'S PROPERTY
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter S
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8

Introduction
Legal basis for owner's right to the profits
Benefit from the work
Hiring stolen property
Hiring property not one's own
Sub-hiring
Insuring another's property
Conclusions

[v]

43
44
49
50

52
54
60
72

The Library of Jewish Law

Ministry of Justice

The Jewish Legal Heritage Society
Foundation for the Advancement
of Jewish Law

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The Library of Jewish Law
The Jewish Legal Heritage Society
P.O.Box 7483 Jerusalem 91074
1987

NAHUM RAKOVER

UNJUST ENRICHMENT
IN JEWISH LAW

The Library of Jewish Law